After 1808, when a federal ban on importing slaves from other countries took effect, the perpetuation of American slavery became dependent on domestic slave births. That aligned the economic interests of slave owners — who wanted to promote the healthy births of slave children — and the interests of white physicians — who
portrayed themselves as helping slaves but also reaped professional benefits because they could experiment on slaves without their consent. As historian Deirdre Cooper Owens
has observed, those economic incentives drove medical innovation. Gynecological examinations of black women influenced the country's slave markets, and "slavery, medicine and medical publishing formed a synergistic partnership" in the establishment of gynecology as a medical specialty in the United States.